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carving of a fierce sea monster； such as appears on some Northman vessels； also there was a tail at the stern。 In water this ship was stable and quite pleasant for traveling； and the confidence of the warriors elevated my spirits。
Near the helmsman was a bed of skins arranged upon a network of ropes； with a skin covering。 This was the bed of Buliwyf； the other warriors slept upon the deck here and there； wrapping skins about them； and I did as much also。
We traveled upon the river for three days； passing many small settlements at the edge of the water。 At none of these did we stop。 Then we came upon a large encampment in a bend in the river Volga。 Here were many hundreds of peoples； and a town of good size； and in the center of the town a kremlin； or fortress； with earthen walls and all of impressive dimensions。 I asked Herger what was this place。
Herger said to me； 〃This is the city of Bulgar； of the kingdom of the Saqaliba。 That is the kremlin of the Yiltawar； King of the Saqaliba。〃
I replied； 〃This is the very King I was sent to see as emissary from my Caliph；〃 and with many entreaties I requested to be put upon the shore to do the mission of my Caliph； also I demanded； and made a show of anger； to the extent that I dared。
Verily the Northmen paid me no heed。 Herger would not reply to my requests and demands； and finally he laughed into my face； and turned his attention to the sailing of the ship。 Thus the Northmen's vessels sailed past the city of Bulgar； so close upon the shore that I heard the shouts of merchants and the bleating of sheep； and yet I was helpless and could do nothing； save witness the sight with my eyes。 After the passing of an hour even this was refused me； for the Bulgar city is at the bend of the river； as I have said； and soon absent from my view。 Thus did I enter and leave Bulgaria。
The reader may now be hopelessly confused about the geography。 Modern Bulgaria is one of the Balkan states； it is bordered by Greece； Yugoslavia； Rumania； and Turkey。 But from the ninth to the fifteenth centuries there was another Bulgaria； on the banks of the Volga； roughly 600 miles east of modern Moscow； and this is where Ibn Fadlan was heading。 Bulgaria on the Volga was a loose…knit kingdom of some importance； and its capital city； Bulgar； was famous and rich when the Mongols occupied it in A。D。 1237。 It is generally believed that Volga Bulgaria and Balkan Bulgaria were populated by related groups of immigrants moving out from the region around the Black Sea during the period A。D。 400…600； but little of substance is known。 The old city of Bulgar is in the region of modern Kazan。
Then passed eight more days upon the vessel； still traveling the Volga River； and the land was more mountainous about the valley of the river。 Now we came to another branching of the river； where it is called by the Northmen the Oker River； and here we took the leftmost branch and continued on for ten days farther。 The air was chill and the wind strong； and much snow lay still upon the ground。 They have many great forests also in this region； which the Northmen call Vada。
Then we came to a camp of North people which was Massborg。 This was hardly a town but a camp of a few wooden houses； built large in the North fashion； and this town lives by sale of foodstuff to traders who e back and forth along this route。 At Massborg we left our vessel； and traveled overland by horse for eighteen days。 This was a difficult mountain region； and exceedingly cold； and I was much exhausted by the rigors of the journey。 These North people never travel at night。 Nor do they often sail at night； but prefer every evening to beach their ship and await the light of dawn before continuing farther。
Yet this was the occurrence： during our travels； the period of the night became so short you could not cook a pot of meat in the time of it。 Verily it seemed that as soon as I lay down to sleep I was awakened by the Northmen who said； 〃e； it is day； we must continue the journey。〃 Nor was the sleep refreshing in these cold places。
Also； Herger explained to me that in this North country the day is long in the summer； and the night is long in the winter； and rarely are they equal。 Then he said to me I should watch in the night for the sky curtain； and upon one evening I did； and I saw in the sky shimmering pale lights； of green and yellow and sometimes blue； which hung as a curtain in the high air。 I was much amazed by the sight of this sky curtain but the Northmen count it nothing strange。
Now we traveled for five days down from the mountains； into a region of forests。 The forests of the Northlands are cold and dense with gigantic trees。 It is a wet and chilling land； in some locations so green that the eyes ache from the brightness of the color； yet in other locations it is black and dark and menacing。
Now we traveled seven days farther； through the forests； and we experienced much rain。 Often it is the nature of this rain that it falls with such thickness as to be oppressive； upon one time or another I thought I might drown； so much was the very air filled with water。 At other periods； when the wind blew the rain； it was as a sandstorm； stinging the flesh and burning the eyes； and blinding the vision。
ing from a desert region； Ibn Fadlan would naturally be impressed by the lush green colors； and the abundant rainfall。
These Northmen feared no robbers in the forests； and whether from their own great strength or the lack of any bandits； in truth we saw no one in the forests。 The North country has few people of any sort； or so it appeared during my sojourn there。 We often traveled seven days； or ten； without viewing any settlement or farm or dwelling。
The manner of our journey was this： in the morning we arose； and lacking any ablutions； mounted upon our horses and rode until the middle of the day。 Then one or another of the warriors would hunt some game； a small animal or a bird。 If it was raining； this food would be consumed without cooking。 It rained many days； and in the first instance I chose not to eat the raw flesh； which also was not dabah ＇ritually slaughtered＇； but after a period I also ate； saying quietly 〃in the name of God〃 under my breath； and trusting to God that my predicament should be understood。 If it was not raining； a fire was lit with a small ember that was carried with the party； and the food cooked。 Also we ate berries and grasses； the names of which I do not know。 Then we traveled for the after…part of each day； which was considerable； until the ing of night； when again we rested； and ate。
Many times at night it rained； and we sought shelter beneath large trees； yet we arose drenched； and our sleeping skins drenched likewise。 The Northmen did not grumble at this； for they are cheerful at all times； I alone grumbled； and mightily。 They paid me no attention。
Finally I said to Herger； 〃The rain is cold。〃 To this he laughed。 〃How can the rain be cold？〃 he said。 〃You are cold and you are unhappy。 The rain is not cold or unhappy。〃
I saw that he believed this foolishness； and truly thought me foolish to think otherwise； and yet I did。
Now it happened that one night； while we ate； I said over my food 〃in the name of God； and Buliwyf inquired of Herger what it was I said。 I told to Herger that I believed food must be consecrated； and so I did this according to my beliefs。 Buliwyf said to me； 〃This is the way of the Arabs？〃 Herger was the translator。
I made this reply： 〃No； for in truth he who kills the food must make the consecration。 I speak the words so as to be not forgetful。〃11
This the Northmen found a reason for humor。 They laughed heartily。 Then Buliwyf said to me； 〃Can you draw sounds？〃 I did not prehend his meaning； and inquired of Herger； and there was some talking back and forth； and finally I understood he meant writing。 The Northmen call the speech of Arabs noise or sound。 I replied to Buliwyf that I could write； and also read。
He said that I should write for him upon the ground。 In the light of the evening fire； I took a stick and wrote； 〃Praise be to God。〃 All the Northmen looked at the writing。 I was manded to speak what it said； and this I did。 Now Buliwyf stared at the