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lled by the natives for food。 Mrs。 Swenson bought her as an infant。〃
〃So she was not bred in captivity；〃 Morton said； writing on his pad。
〃No。 Mrs。 Swenson brought her back to the States and donated her to the Minneapolis zoo。〃
〃She relinquished her interest in Amy？〃
〃I assume so；〃 Elliot said。 〃We've been trying to reach Mrs。 Swenson to ask about Amy's early life； but she's out of the country。 Apparently she travels constantly； she's in Borneo。 Anyway； when Amy was sent to San Francisco； I called the Minneapolis zoo to ask if I could keep her for study。 The zoo said yes； for three years。〃
〃Did you pay any money？〃
''No。
〃Was there a written contract？〃
〃No； I just called the zoo director。〃
Morton nodded。 〃Oral agreement。 。 。〃 he said； writing。 〃And when the three years were up？〃
〃That was the spring of 1976。 1 asked the zoo for an extension of six years； and they gave it to me。〃
〃Again orally？〃
〃Yes。 I called on the phone。〃
〃No correspondence？〃
〃No。 They didn't seem very interested when I called。 To tell you the truth； I think they had forgotten about Amy。 The zoo has four gorillas； anyway。〃
Morton frowned。 〃Isn't a gorilla a pretty expensive animal？ I mean； if you wanted to buy one for a pet or for the circus。〃
〃Gorillas are on the endangered list； you can't buy them as pets。 But yes； they'd be pretty expensive。〃
〃How expensive？〃
〃Well； there's no established market value； but it would be twenty or thirty thousand dollars。〃
〃And all during these years； you have been teaching her language？〃
〃Yes；〃 Peter said。 〃American Sign Language。 She has a vocabulary of six hundred and twenty words now。〃
〃Is that a lot？〃
〃More than any known primate。〃
Morton nodded； making notes。 〃You work with her every day in ongoing research？〃
〃Yes。〃
〃Good；〃 Morton said。 〃That's been very important in the animal custody cases so far。〃
For more than a hundred years； there had been organized movements in Western countries to stop animal experimentation。 They were led by the anti…vivisectionists； the RSPCA； the ASPCA。 Originally these organizations were a kind of lunatic fringe of animal lovers； intent on stopping all animal research。
Over the years； scientists had evolved a standard defense acceptable to the courts。 Researchers claimed that their experiments had the goal of bettering the health and welfare of mankind； a higher priority than animal welfare。 They pointed out that no one objected to animals being used as beasts of burden or for agricultural work…a life of drudgery to which animals had been subjected for thousands of years。 Using animals in scientific experiments simply extended the idea that animals were the servants of human enterprises。
In addition； animals were literally brutes。 They had no self…awareness； no recognition of their existence in nature。 This meant； in the words of philosopher George H。 Mead； that 〃animals have no rights。 We are at liberty to cut off their lives； there is no wrong mitted when an animal's life is taken away。 He has not lost anything
Many people were troubled by these views； but attempts to establish guidelines quickly ran into logical problems。 The most obvious concerned the perceptions of animals further down the phylogenetic scale。 Few researchers operated on dogs； cats； and other mammals without anesthesia； but what about annelid worms； crayfish； leeches； and squid？ Ignoring these creatures was a form of 〃taxonomic discrimination。〃 Yet if these animals deserved consideration； shouldn't it also be illegal to throw a live lobster into a pot of boiling water？
The question of what constituted cruelty to animals was confused by the animal societies themselves。 In some countries； they fought the extermination of rats； and in 1968 there was the bizarre Australian pharmaceutical case。 * In the face of these ironies； the courts hesitated to interfere with animal experimentation。 As a practical matter； researchers were free to do as they wished。 The volume of animal research was extraordinary： during the 1970s； sixty…four million animals were killed in experiments in the United States each year。
But attitudes had slowly changed。 Language studies with dolphins and apes made it clear that these animals were not only intelligent but self…aware； they recognized themselves in mirrors and photographs。 In 1974； scientists themselves formed the International Primate Protection League to monitor research involving monkeys and apes。 In March； 1978； the Indian government banned the export of rhesus monkeys to research laboratories around the world。 And there were court cases which concluded that in some instances animals did； indeed； have rights。
The old view was analogous to slavery： the animal was the property of its owner； who could do whatever he wished。 But now ownership became secondary。 In February； 1977；
*A new pharmaceutical factory was built in Western Australia。 In this factory all the pills came out on a conveyor bell； a person had to watch the belt； and press buttons to sort the pills into separate bins by size and color。 A Skinnenan animal behaviorist pointed out that it would be simple to teach pigeons to watch the pills and peck colored keys to do the sorting process。 Incredulous factory managers agreed to a test； the pigeons indeed performed reliably； and were duly placed on the assembly line。 Then the RSPCA stepped in and put a stop to it on the grounds that it represented cruelty to animals； the job was turned over to a human operator。 for whom it did not； apparently； represent cruelty。
there was a case involving a dolphin named Mary； released by a lab technician into the open ocean。 The University of Hawaii prosecuted the technician； charging loss…of a valuable research animal。 Two trials resulted in hung juries； the case was dropped。
In November； 1978； there was a custody case involving a chimpanzee named Arthur； who was fluent in sign language。 His owner； Johns Hopkins University； decided to sell him and close the program。 His trainer； William Levine； went to court and obtained custody on the grounds that Arthur knew language and thus was no longer a chimpanzee。
〃One of the pertinent facts；〃 Morton said； 〃was that when Arthur was confronted by other chimpanzees； he referred to them as 'black things。' And when Arthur was twice asked to sort photographs of people and photographs of chimps； he sorted them correctly except that both times he put his own picture in the stack with the people。 He obviously did not consider himself a chimpanzee； and the court ruled that he should remain with his trainer； since any separation would cause him severe psychic distress。〃
〃Amy cries when I leave her；〃 Elliot said。
〃When you conduct experiments； do you obtain her permission？〃
〃Always。〃 Elliot smiled。 Morton obviously had no sense of day…to…day life with Amy。 It was essential to obtain her permission for any course of action； even a ride in a car。 She was a powerful animal； and she could be willful and stubborn。
〃Do you keep a record of her acquiescence？〃
〃Videotapes。〃
〃Does she understand the experiments you propose？〃 He shrugged。 〃She says she does。〃
〃You follow a system of rewards and punishments？〃 〃All animal behaviorists do。〃
Morton frowned。 〃What forms do her punishments take？〃
〃Well； when she's a bad girl I make her stand in the corner facing the wall。 Or else I send her to bed early without her peanut…butter…and…jelly snack。〃
〃What about torture and shock treatments？〃
〃Ridiculous。〃
〃You never physically punish the animal？〃
〃She's a pretty damn big animal。 Usually I worry that she'll get mad and punish me。〃
Morton smiled and stood。 〃You're going to be all right；〃 he said。 〃Any court will rule that Amy is your ward and that you must decide any ultimate disposition in her case。〃 He hesitated。 〃I know this sounds strange； but could you put Amy on the stand？〃
〃I guess so；〃 Elliot said。 〃Do you think it will e to that？〃
〃Not in this case；〃 Morton said； 〃but sooner or later it will。 You watch： within ten years； there will be a custody case involving a language…using primate； and the ape will be in the witness…box。〃
Elliot shook his hand； and said as he was